New Zealand Now - Women (Census 96) (1998)

New Zealand Now - Women (Census 96) (1998) - Reference Reports
What It's About

New Zealand Now - Women - A further title in the series. This publication documents aspects of women's lives such as their family situation, educational qualifications, work and income. The information in this report is drawn from the 1996 Census of Population and Dwellings and other sources. Where possible, separate data is given for Mäori women because their life experiences are often different from other groups of women. Women is the sixth statistical report on the diverse lives of New Zealand women.

Chapter 1

Introduction
Recent decades have seen considerable change in the economic and social position of women in New Zealand. Changing demographic characteristics of the female population, changes in patterns of family formation and dissolution, changes in living arrangements and increasing participation in education and paid employment have all had significant consequences for women. These changes have taken place in a context of government policies aimed at eliminating discrimination and promoting opportunities for women and less formal processes of attitudinal change regarding the role of women in society. Given that women make up over half the total population of New Zealand, their status is also inextricably linked with broader issues of access to opportunities, resources and decision-making processes. While some changes in the status of women are readily observable, obvious inequalities still exist, ensuring that these issues continue to be of importance to the public and policy makers alike.

Official statistics have an important role to play in the monitoring of women's economic and social progress. They allow measurement of women's status in terms of both changes over time and in comparison with their male peers. They also allow us to look at patterns within the female population which is characterised by pronounced differences between women of varying ages, life-cycle status, ethnicity, geographical location and family responsibilities. This report examines these trends and patterns, drawing mainly on data from various censuses of population and dwellings supplemented with data from other sources where appropriate. It looks at trends over time, with particular reference to the last decade, within the context of changing perceptions of the roles of women and men in the family and at a broader level of society. The report also focuses on specific groups within the female population which are of particular interest. Notably, the position of Mäori women is studied in some detail.

Demographic, economic and social changes are occurring as a result of New Zealand's ageing population, although both the Mäori and Pacific Islands age structures remain young. How these changes impact on women and family life is important, particularly with reference to the provision of services. Chapter 2 analyses the past and current demographic situation of women in terms of age, life expectancy, ethnicity, geographic location, health, population mobility and immigration. Census data shows that women have outnumbered men in New Zealand since 1971 due to their longer life expectancy and lower mortality rates. Future projections highlight the likely changes in age structure and ethnic composition of the female population. Chapter 2 also shows that despite the narrowing gap in life expectancy between Mäori and non-Mäori women over the last 50 years, mortality rates remain higher for Mäori women, who tend to experience poorer health and a lower socio-economic status. Women's health, disability and main causes of death are also examined by specific population groups as are mobility and immigration trends.

Over recent decades there has been a marked change in family structure, reflecting a change in attitude toward family and the role of women. Chapter 3 explores the living arrangements of women within the context of changes in family and household composition. Among the most notable trends is a rise in de facto relationships and an increase in marital dissolution. At the same time, the proportion of women aged 16 and over who are married has fallen from two-thirds in the mid 1960s to just over half in 1996. Furthermore, trends vary by age and ethnicity. For example, Mäori women are more likely than non-Mäori women to be in a de facto relationship or in a sole-parent family. There have also been trends toward smaller family size, delayed childbearing and an increase in sole-parent families. The latter specifically affects women's economic and social status as almost 85 percent of sole-parent families are headed by women. Chapter 3 also looks at household composition, elderly women, lesbian couples and housing tenure with particular reference to differences by age, ethnicity and changes over time.

Education is often seen as the first step toward future choice in terms of economic independence, employment and quality of life. Reducing barriers to education for women increases the chance of enhanced career opportunities and higher pay. Chapter 4 looks at recent improvements in women's participation and attainment in education, both at the post-compulsory school level and in the post-school sector. As females now stay at school for a longer period, they leave school more qualified than 10 years ago, and more qualified than their male peers. However, sex segregation still exists in subject choice. Women now outnumber men in tertiary education. Both participation and attainment vary by age, ethnicity and educational institution attended. Overall, the proportion of women who hold a formal qualification (school or post-school) has increased from 55 percent in 1986 to 65 percent in 1996. Although Mäori women have made the greatest gains in participation and attainment over the last decade disparities remain. Chapter 4 shows how traditional expectations continue to play a large role in subject selection and explores other areas of significance such as student loans, graduates, employment, income and teachers.

Over the past 50 years there has been dramatic change in the position of women in the labour market, notably the rapid growth in women's participation in paid employment. Chapter 5 explores this change with particular reference to the last decade. Changing economic circumstances, the casualisation of the workforce and employment policies more considerate of women's family responsibilities have seen more women enter into paid employment, particularly those with childcare responsibilities or those combining education and employment. However, the part-time and casual workforce tends to experience poorer conditions, lower incomes and more tenuous job security. Although a changed economic and social environment has increased women's labour force participation over the last four decades, their participation remains almost 15 percent lower than men's. Women are more likely to work part time and are still more likely to be employed in traditional occupations, with 4 out of every 5 women working in the service sector. Women's unemployment rate is higher than that of men, although women were affected less by job losses resulting from the economic restructuring of the late 1980s. This was largely due to the greater impact on the manufacturing sector which was predominantly male. Labour force participation rates of Mäori and non-Mäori women are similar, although Mäori women are over-represented among New Zealand's unemployed. Chapter 5 also looks at the high participation of women in unpaid work. There is a growing recognition of the value to society and the economy of unpaid work. While some data on unpaid work was collected in the 1996 Census, the 1998-99 Time Use Survey will collect more detailed information which will allow for a more accurate calculation of the contribution unpaid work makes to society.

Women's participation in the labour force, including their occupation and the number of hours they work, goes some way toward determining the level of personal income they receive. Women's income also varies by age, ethnicity and educational attainment. Decisions relating to childbearing and childrearing can influence participation in the labour force which, in turn, impacts on the level of income women receive. Overall, in 1996 women received a median annual income of $12,600, significantly lower than that of their male counterparts' $22,100. Women were also under-represented in the two highest income quintiles. Among women, Mäori are less likely than non-Mäori to receive higher incomes. Women in full-time employment receive lower personal incomes from wages and salaries than men in full-time employment. Chapter 6 looks at this "gender earnings gap", attempting to explore some of the factors responsible for the discrepancy. Because distribution of economic resources within families is also important, Chapter 6 also looks at family income. Analysis of women living with a partner of the opposite sex shows that few women live with a man who receives a lower income than themselves. Women living in one-parent families have the lowest equivalised family incomes, while among women, Mäori have lower family incomes than non-Mäori.